Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India
The recent decline in India’s rural female labor force participation is generally attributed to higher rural incomes in a patriarchal society. Together with the growing share of the urban population, where female participation rates are lower, this...
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| Format: | Working Paper |
| Language: | English en_US |
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World Bank, Washington, DC
2015
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| Online Access: | http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/09/25049370/job-opportunities-along-rural-urban-gradation-female-labor-force-participation-india http://hdl.handle.net/10986/22668 |
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okr-10986-22668 |
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| recordtype |
oai_dc |
| repository_type |
Digital Repository |
| institution_category |
Foreign Institution |
| institution |
Digital Repositories |
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World Bank Open Knowledge Repository |
| collection |
World Bank |
| language |
English en_US |
| topic |
LIVING STANDARDS JOBS EMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD SIZE SOCIAL NORMS POPULATION CENSUSES UNEMPLOYMENT RATES WORKFORCE WORKING-AGE POPULATION URBANIZATION EMPLOYMENT GENERATION LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE PREVIOUS SECTION EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN FEWER WOMEN FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICE SECTOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES RURAL WOMEN EMPLOYMENT EFFECTS LEVELS OF EDUCATION LABOR FORCE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT JOB FEMALE EMPLOYMENT LABOR ECONOMICS JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN POLICY DISCUSSIONS REAL WAGES LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RURAL POPULATION NUMBER OF PEOPLE EMPLOYMENT TRENDS POPULATION SIZE WAGE GROWTH JOB LOSSES INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION ESTIMATED PARAMETERS SPOUSES MALE WORKERS WORK EXPERIENCE EMPLOYMENT LEVEL LABOR MARKET POPULATION CENSUS EMPLOYMENT LEVELS REGULAR JOBS JOB OPPORTUNITIES EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT MARKET WAGES FERTILITY RATES WORKER LIMITED JOB OPPORTUNITIES UNEMPLOYED HOUSEHOLD INCOME HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS LAND OWNERSHIP MARRIAGE LABOR OPEN UNEMPLOYMENT TOTAL EMPLOYMENT PLACE OF RESIDENCE JOB SEARCH CHILD CARE REGULAR WORKERS ELDERLY FEMALE LABOR EDUCATED WOMEN PROGRESS UNEMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL AVERAGE WAGES HUMAN CAPITAL AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT RATE WORKERS UNEMPLOYMENT RATE REAL WAGE LABOR DEMAND WOMAN POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER HOUSEHOLD EARNING POLICY MAKERS CASUAL WORKERS URBAN CENTERS LABOUR MARKET PROBIT REGRESSION URBAN AREAS PUBLIC DEBATE JOB CREATION HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS EARNING PROBIT REGRESSIONS LABOR FORCE YOUNG CHILDREN LABOR MARKET INDICATORS SMALL VILLAGES RURAL EMPLOYMENT FARMING JOBS REGULAR EMPLOYMENT POLICY HUSBANDS EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE LABOR ORGANIZATION NUMBER OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION UNMARRIED WOMEN LABOUR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES CENSUSES SOCIAL GROUP RURAL AREAS NUMBER OF CHILDREN FEMALE LABOR FORCE LABORERS ECONOMIC TRENDS POPULATION LABOR SUPPLY MARITAL STATUS LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION LOCAL LABOR MARKET MARRIED WOMEN POLICY RESEARCH FERTILITY LABOUR SUPPLY PRIMARY EDUCATION WOMEN LABOUR LABOR MARKETS URBAN POPULATION WAGE EMPLOYMENT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT POLICY |
| spellingShingle |
LIVING STANDARDS JOBS EMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD SIZE SOCIAL NORMS POPULATION CENSUSES UNEMPLOYMENT RATES WORKFORCE WORKING-AGE POPULATION URBANIZATION EMPLOYMENT GENERATION LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE PREVIOUS SECTION EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN FEWER WOMEN FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICE SECTOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES RURAL WOMEN EMPLOYMENT EFFECTS LEVELS OF EDUCATION LABOR FORCE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT JOB FEMALE EMPLOYMENT LABOR ECONOMICS JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN POLICY DISCUSSIONS REAL WAGES LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RURAL POPULATION NUMBER OF PEOPLE EMPLOYMENT TRENDS POPULATION SIZE WAGE GROWTH JOB LOSSES INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION ESTIMATED PARAMETERS SPOUSES MALE WORKERS WORK EXPERIENCE EMPLOYMENT LEVEL LABOR MARKET POPULATION CENSUS EMPLOYMENT LEVELS REGULAR JOBS JOB OPPORTUNITIES EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT MARKET WAGES FERTILITY RATES WORKER LIMITED JOB OPPORTUNITIES UNEMPLOYED HOUSEHOLD INCOME HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS LAND OWNERSHIP MARRIAGE LABOR OPEN UNEMPLOYMENT TOTAL EMPLOYMENT PLACE OF RESIDENCE JOB SEARCH CHILD CARE REGULAR WORKERS ELDERLY FEMALE LABOR EDUCATED WOMEN PROGRESS UNEMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL AVERAGE WAGES HUMAN CAPITAL AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT RATE WORKERS UNEMPLOYMENT RATE REAL WAGE LABOR DEMAND WOMAN POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER HOUSEHOLD EARNING POLICY MAKERS CASUAL WORKERS URBAN CENTERS LABOUR MARKET PROBIT REGRESSION URBAN AREAS PUBLIC DEBATE JOB CREATION HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS EARNING PROBIT REGRESSIONS LABOR FORCE YOUNG CHILDREN LABOR MARKET INDICATORS SMALL VILLAGES RURAL EMPLOYMENT FARMING JOBS REGULAR EMPLOYMENT POLICY HUSBANDS EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE LABOR ORGANIZATION NUMBER OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION UNMARRIED WOMEN LABOUR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES CENSUSES SOCIAL GROUP RURAL AREAS NUMBER OF CHILDREN FEMALE LABOR FORCE LABORERS ECONOMIC TRENDS POPULATION LABOR SUPPLY MARITAL STATUS LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION LOCAL LABOR MARKET MARRIED WOMEN POLICY RESEARCH FERTILITY LABOUR SUPPLY PRIMARY EDUCATION WOMEN LABOUR LABOR MARKETS URBAN POPULATION WAGE EMPLOYMENT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT POLICY Chatterjee, Urmila Murgai, Rinku Rama, Martin Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| geographic_facet |
South Asia India |
| relation |
Policy Research Working Paper;No. 7412 |
| description |
The recent decline in India’s rural
female labor force participation is generally attributed to
higher rural incomes in a patriarchal society. Together with
the growing share of the urban population, where female
participation rates are lower, this alleged income effect
does not bode well for the empowerment of women as India
develops. This paper argues that a traditional supply-side
interpretation is insufficient to account for the decline in
female participation rates, and the transformation of the
demand for labor at local levels needs to be taken into
account as well. A salient trait of this period is the
collapse in the number of farming jobs without a parallel
emergence of other employment opportunities considered
suitable for women. The paper develops a novel approach to
capture the structure of employment at the village or town
level, and allow for differences along six ranks in the
rural-urban gradation. It also considers the possible
misclassification of urban areas as rural, as a result of
household surveys lagging behind India’s rapid urbanization
process. The results show that the place of residence along
the rural-urban gradation loses relevance as an explanation
of female labor force participation once local job
opportunities are taken into account. Robustness checks
confirm that the main findings hold even when taking into
account the possibility of spurious correlation and
endogeneity. They also hold under alternative definitions of
labor force participation and when sub-samples of women are
considered. Simulations suggest that for India to reverse
the decline in female labor force participation rates it
needs to boost job creation. |
| format |
Working Paper |
| author |
Chatterjee, Urmila Murgai, Rinku Rama, Martin |
| author_facet |
Chatterjee, Urmila Murgai, Rinku Rama, Martin |
| author_sort |
Chatterjee, Urmila |
| title |
Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| title_short |
Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| title_full |
Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| title_fullStr |
Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India |
| title_sort |
job opportunities along the rural-urban gradation and female labor force participation in india |
| publisher |
World Bank, Washington, DC |
| publishDate |
2015 |
| url |
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/09/25049370/job-opportunities-along-rural-urban-gradation-female-labor-force-participation-india http://hdl.handle.net/10986/22668 |
| _version_ |
1764451718897074176 |
| spelling |
okr-10986-226682021-04-23T14:04:10Z Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor Force Participation in India Chatterjee, Urmila Murgai, Rinku Rama, Martin LIVING STANDARDS JOBS EMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD SIZE SOCIAL NORMS POPULATION CENSUSES UNEMPLOYMENT RATES WORKFORCE WORKING-AGE POPULATION URBANIZATION EMPLOYMENT GENERATION LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE PREVIOUS SECTION EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN FEWER WOMEN FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICE SECTOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES RURAL WOMEN EMPLOYMENT EFFECTS LEVELS OF EDUCATION LABOR FORCE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT JOB FEMALE EMPLOYMENT LABOR ECONOMICS JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN POLICY DISCUSSIONS REAL WAGES LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RURAL POPULATION NUMBER OF PEOPLE EMPLOYMENT TRENDS POPULATION SIZE WAGE GROWTH JOB LOSSES INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION ESTIMATED PARAMETERS SPOUSES MALE WORKERS WORK EXPERIENCE EMPLOYMENT LEVEL LABOR MARKET POPULATION CENSUS EMPLOYMENT LEVELS REGULAR JOBS JOB OPPORTUNITIES EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT MARKET WAGES FERTILITY RATES WORKER LIMITED JOB OPPORTUNITIES UNEMPLOYED HOUSEHOLD INCOME HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS LAND OWNERSHIP MARRIAGE LABOR OPEN UNEMPLOYMENT TOTAL EMPLOYMENT PLACE OF RESIDENCE JOB SEARCH CHILD CARE REGULAR WORKERS ELDERLY FEMALE LABOR EDUCATED WOMEN PROGRESS UNEMPLOYMENT HOUSEHOLD LEVEL AVERAGE WAGES HUMAN CAPITAL AGGREGATE UNEMPLOYMENT RATE WORKERS UNEMPLOYMENT RATE REAL WAGE LABOR DEMAND WOMAN POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER HOUSEHOLD EARNING POLICY MAKERS CASUAL WORKERS URBAN CENTERS LABOUR MARKET PROBIT REGRESSION URBAN AREAS PUBLIC DEBATE JOB CREATION HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS EARNING PROBIT REGRESSIONS LABOR FORCE YOUNG CHILDREN LABOR MARKET INDICATORS SMALL VILLAGES RURAL EMPLOYMENT FARMING JOBS REGULAR EMPLOYMENT POLICY HUSBANDS EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE LABOR ORGANIZATION NUMBER OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION UNMARRIED WOMEN LABOUR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES CENSUSES SOCIAL GROUP RURAL AREAS NUMBER OF CHILDREN FEMALE LABOR FORCE LABORERS ECONOMIC TRENDS POPULATION LABOR SUPPLY MARITAL STATUS LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION LOCAL LABOR MARKET MARRIED WOMEN POLICY RESEARCH FERTILITY LABOUR SUPPLY PRIMARY EDUCATION WOMEN LABOUR LABOR MARKETS URBAN POPULATION WAGE EMPLOYMENT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT POLICY The recent decline in India’s rural female labor force participation is generally attributed to higher rural incomes in a patriarchal society. Together with the growing share of the urban population, where female participation rates are lower, this alleged income effect does not bode well for the empowerment of women as India develops. This paper argues that a traditional supply-side interpretation is insufficient to account for the decline in female participation rates, and the transformation of the demand for labor at local levels needs to be taken into account as well. A salient trait of this period is the collapse in the number of farming jobs without a parallel emergence of other employment opportunities considered suitable for women. The paper develops a novel approach to capture the structure of employment at the village or town level, and allow for differences along six ranks in the rural-urban gradation. It also considers the possible misclassification of urban areas as rural, as a result of household surveys lagging behind India’s rapid urbanization process. The results show that the place of residence along the rural-urban gradation loses relevance as an explanation of female labor force participation once local job opportunities are taken into account. Robustness checks confirm that the main findings hold even when taking into account the possibility of spurious correlation and endogeneity. They also hold under alternative definitions of labor force participation and when sub-samples of women are considered. Simulations suggest that for India to reverse the decline in female labor force participation rates it needs to boost job creation. 2015-09-23T20:16:46Z 2015-09-23T20:16:46Z 2015-09 Working Paper http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/09/25049370/job-opportunities-along-rural-urban-gradation-female-labor-force-participation-india http://hdl.handle.net/10986/22668 English en_US Policy Research Working Paper;No. 7412 CC BY 3.0 IGO http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/ World Bank World Bank, Washington, DC Publications & Research Publications & Research :: Policy Research Working Paper South Asia India |